Glossary

Diabetes Glossary of Terms

A
a1c (hemoglobin a1c)
acanthosis nigricans
ACE inhibitor
advanced glycation end-products
albuminuria
amyotrophy
angina
atherosclerosis
autoimmune

B
beta cell of pancreas
bladder
blood pressure
blood sugar

C
callus
cholesterol
coronary angiography
coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)

D
diabetes
diabetic ketoacidosis
dialysis
diphtheria

E
echocardiography
electrocardiogram

F
flu

G
gestational diabetes mellitus
gingivitis
glucagon

H
heart attack
hormone
hyperglycemia
hypertension
hypoglycemia

I
immunization
impotence
influenza
insulin
insulin resistance

K
kidney

L
LDL

M
metabolic syndrome
myocardial infarction

N
nephropathy
neuropathy

P
pancreas
periodontitis
plaque
prediabetes

R
retinopathy
retrograde ejaculation
risk factor

S
stroke

T
transient ischemic attack (TIA)
Type 1 diabetes
Type 2 diabetes

U
ulcer

V
vitrectomy

A
a1c (hemoglobin a1c)
Pronunciation (hē′mō-glō′bin)
The red respiratory protein of erythrocytes, consisting of approximately 3.8% heme and 96.2% globin, with a molecular weight of 64,450, which as oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues where the oxygen is readily released and HbO2 becomes Hb. When Hb is exposed to certain chemicals, its normal respiratory function is blocked; e.g., the oxygen in HbO2 is easily displaced by carbon monoxide, thereby resulting in the formation of fairly stable carboxyhemoglobin (HbCO), as in asphyxiation resulting from inhalation of exhaust fumes from gasoline engines. When the iron in Hb is oxidized from the ferrous to ferric state, as in poisoning with nitrates and certain other chemicals, a nonrespiratory compound, methemoglobin (MetHb), is formed. In humans there are at least five kinds of normal Hb: two embryonic Hb's (Hb Gower-1, Hb Gower-2), fetal (Hb F), and two adult types (Hb A, Hb A2). There are two α globin chains containing 141 amino acid residues, and two of another kind (β, γ, ΄, ε, or ζ), each containing 146 amino acid residues in four of the Hb's. Hb Gower-1 has two ζ chains and two ε chains. The production of each kind of globin chain is controlled by a structural gene of similar Greek letter designation; normal individuals are homozygous for the normal allele at each locus. Substitution of one amino acid for another in the polypeptide chain can occur at any codon in any of the five loci and have resulted in the production of many hundreds of abnormal Hb types, most of no known clinical significance. In addition, deletions of one or more amino acid residues are known, as well as gene rearrangements due to unequal crossing over between homologous chromosomes. The Hb types below are the main abnormal types known to be of clinical significance. Newly discovered abnormal Hb types are first assigned a name, usually the location where discovered, and a molecular formula is added when determined. The formula consists of Greek letters to designate the basic chains, with subscript 2 if there are two identical chains; a superscript letter (A if normal for adult Hb, etc.) is added, or the superscript may designate the site of amino acid substitution (numbering amino acid residues from the N-terminus of the polypeptide) and specifying the change, using standard abbreviations for the amino acids. There is an exhaustive listing of variant Hb's in MIM in which a composite numbering system is used. (Back to Glossary)

acanthosis nigricans

An eruption of velvety, warty benign growths and hyperpigmentation on the skin of the axillae, neck, anogenital area, and groin; in adults, may be associated with internal malignancy, endocrine disorders (characterized by insulin resistance), or obesity; seen in Type 2 diabetes in adolescents; a benign hereditary type occurs in children. See also: pseudoacanthosis nigricans. (Back to Glossary)

ACE inhibitor

A class of drugs (angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors) that block the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II, used in the treatment of hypertension and congestive heart failure and in the prevention of microvascular complications of diabetes mellitus (DM). (Back to Glossary)

advanced glycation end-products

Glycation adducts of sugars and proteins involved in the collagen cross-linking occurring with aging. (Back to Glossary)

albuminuria

Pronunciation (al-bū-min-yū′rē-ă)Presence of protein in urine, chiefly albumin but also globulin; usually indicative of disease, but sometimes resulting from a temporary or transient dysfunction.(Back to Glossary)

amyotrophy

Pronunciation (ă′mī′ot′rō-fē)
Muscular wasting or atrophy. (Back to Glossary)

angina

Pronunciation (an′ji-nă, an-jī′nă)A severe, often constricting pain or sensation of pressure, usually referring to angina pectoris. (Back to Glossary)

atherosclerosis

Pronunciation (ath′er-ō-skler-ō′sis)Arteriosclerosis characterized by irregularly distributed lipid deposits in the intima of large and medium-sized arteries, causing narrowing of arterial lumens and proceeding eventually to fibrosis and calcification. Lesions are usually focal and progress slowly and intermittently. Limitation of blood flow accounts for most clinical manifestations, which vary with the distribution and severity of lesions. In lower animals, atherosclerosis of swine and fowl closely resemble human atherosclerosis. (Back to Glossary)

autoimmune

Pronunciation (aw′tō-i-mūn′)Term describing cells and antibodies arising from and directed against the individual's own tissues, as in autoimmune disease. (Back to Glossary)

B

beta cell of pancreas

The predominant cell of the pancreatic islets that secretes insulin. (Back to Glossary)

bladder

Pronunciation (blad′er)
A distensible musculomembranous organ serving as a receptacle for fluid, such as the urinary bladder or gallbladder. See: detrusor (Back to Glossary)

blood pressure

The pressure or tension of the blood within the systemic arteries, maintained by the contraction of the left ventricle, the resistance of the arterioles and capillaries, the elasticity of the arterial walls, as well as the viscosity and volume of the blood; expressed as relative to the ambient atmospheric pressure. (Back to Glossary)

blood sugar

See: d-glucose

C

callus

Pronunciation (kal′ŭs)
A composite mass of tissue that forms at a fracture site to establish continuity between the bone ends; it is composed initially of uncallused fibrous tissue and cartilage, and ultimately of bone. Syn: fracture callus. (Back to Glossary)

cholesterol

Pronunciation (kō-les′ter-ol)
5-cholesten-3β-ol (cholestane with a 5,6 double bond and a 3β-hydroxyl group); the most abundant steroid in animal tissues, especially in bile and gallstones, and present in food, especially food rich in animal fats; circulates in the plasma complexed to proteins of various densities and plays an important role in the pathogenesis of atheroma formation in arteries; a precursor of steroid hormones. See also: lipoprotein (Back to Glossary)

coronary angiography

Imaging of the circulation of the myocardium by injection of contrast medium, usually by selective catheterization of each coronary artery, formerly by nonselective injection at the root of the aorta. (Back to Glossary)

coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)

a surgical procedure in which damaged sections of the coronary arteries are replaced with new articular of venous graftings to increase rate of cardiac blood flow. (Back to Glossary)

D

diabetes

Pronunciation (dī′ă-bē′tēz)
Either diabetes insipidus or diabetes mellitus, diseases having in common the triad of symptoms polyuria, weight loss, and significant glucosuria; when used without qualification, refers to diabetes mellitus. (Back to Glossary)

diabetic ketoacidosis

Buildup of ketones in blood due to breakdown of stored fats for energy; a complication of diabetes mellitus. Untreated, can lead to coma and death. (Back to Glossary)

dialysis

A form of filtration to separate crystalloid from colloid substances (or smaller molecules from larger ones) in a solution by interposing a semipermeable membrane between the solution and dialyzing fluid; the crystalloid (smaller) substances pass through the membrane into the dialyzing fluid on the other side, the colloids do not. (Back to Glossary)

diphtheria

Pronunciation (dif-thēr′ē-ă)
A specific infectious disease due to the bacterium Corynebacterium diphtheriae and its highly potent toxin; marked by severe inflammation that can form a membranous coating, with formation of a thick fibrinous exudate, of the mucous membrane of the pharynx, the nose, and sometimes the tracheobronchial tree; the toxin produces degeneration in peripheral nerves, heart muscle, and other tissues, diphtheria had a high fatality rate, especially in children, but is now rare because of an effective vaccine. (Back to Glossary)

E

echocardiography

Pronunciation (ek′ō-kar′dē-og′ră-fē)
The use of ultrasound in the investigation of the heart and great vessels and diagnosis of cardiovascular lesions.

Syn: ultrasonic cardiography, ultrasound cardiography (Back to Glossary)

electrocardiogram

Pronunciation (ē-lek′trō-kar′dē-ō-gram)
Graphic record of the heart's integrated action currents obtained with the electrocardiograph displayed as voltage changes over time. (Back to Glossary)

F

flu

Pronunciation (flū)
Syn: influenza (Back to Glossary)

G

gestational diabetes mellitus

Carbohydrate intolerance of variable severity with onset or first recognition during pregnancy. (Back to Glossary)

gingivitis

Pronunciation (jin′ji-vī′tis)
Inflammation of the gingiva as a response to bacterial plaque on adjacent teeth; characterized by erythema, edema, and fibrous enlargement of the gingiva without resorption of the underlying alveolar bone. (Back to Glossary)

glucagon

Pronunciation (glū′kă-gon)
A hormone consisting of a straight-chain polypeptide of 29 amino acyl residues, extracted from pancreatic alpha cells. Parenteral administration of 0.5–1 mg results in prompt mobilization of hepatic glycogen, thus elevating blood glucose concentration. It activates hepatic phosphorylase, thereby increasing glycogenolysis, decreases gastric motility and gastric and pancreatic secretions, and increases urinary excretion of nitrogen and potassium; it has no effect on muscle phosphorylase. As the hydrochloride, it is used in the treatment of type I glycogenosis (von Gierke disease) and hypoglycemia, particularly hypoglycemic coma due to exogenously administered insulin.

Syn: HG factor, hyperglycemic-glycogenolytic factor, pancreatic hyperglycemic hormone (Back to Glossary)

H

heart attack

Syn: myocardial infarction (Back to Glossary)

hormone

Pronunciation (hōr′mōn)
A chemical substance, formed in one organ or part of the body and carried in the blood to another organ or part where they exert functional effects; depending on the specificity of their effects, hormones can alter the functional activity, and sometimes the structure, of just one organ or tissue or various numbers of them. Various hormones are formed by ductless glands, but molecules such as secretin, cholecystokinin/somatostatin, formed in the gastrointestinal tract, by definition are also hormones. The definition of hormone has been recently extended to chemical substances formed by cells and acting on neighboring cells (i.e., paracrine function) or the same cells that produce them (i.e., autocrine function). For hormones not listed below, see specific names. (Back to Glossary)

hyperglycemia

Pronunciation (hī′pĕr-glī-sē′mē-ă)
An abnormally high concentration of glucose in the circulating blood, seen especially in patients with diabetes mellitus. (Back to Glossary)

hypertension

Pronunciation (hī′pĕr-ten′shŭn)
High blood pressure; transitory or sustained elevation of systemic arterial blood pressure to a level likely to induce cardiovascular damage or other adverse consequences. Hypertension has been arbitrarily defined as a systolic blood pressure above 140 mmHg or a diastolic blood pressure above 90 mmHg. Consequences of uncontrolled hypertension include retinal vascular damage (Keith-Wagener-Barker changes), cerebrovascular disease and stroke, left ventricular hypertrophy and failure, myocardial infarction, dissecting aneurysm, and renovascular disease. An underlying disorder (e.g., renal disease, Cushing syndrome, pheochromocytoma) is identified in fewer than 10% of all cases of hypertension. The remainder, traditionally labeled “essential” hypertension, probably arise from a variety of disturbances in normal pressure-regulating mechanisms (which involve baroreceptors, autonomic influences on the rate and force of cardiac contraction and vascular tone, renal retention of salt and water, formation of angiotensin II under the influence of renin and angiotensin-converting enzyme, and other factors known and unknown), and most are probably genetically conditioned. (Back to Glossary)

hypoglycemia

Pronunciation (hī′pō-glī-sē′mē-ă)
Symptoms resulting from low blood glucose (normal glucose range 60–100 mg/dL [3.3–5.6 mmol/L]), which are either autonomic or neuroglycopenic. Autonomic symptoms include sweating, trembling, feelings of warmth, anxiety, and nausea. Neuroglycopenic symptoms include feelings of dizziness, confusion, tiredness, difficulty speaking, headache, and inability to concentrate. (Back to Glossary)

I

immunization

Pronunciation (im′myū-ni-zā′shŭn)
Protection of susceptible patients from communicable diseases by administration of a living modified agent (e.g., yellow fever vaccine), a suspension of killed organisms (e.g., pertussis vaccine), a protein expressed in a heterologous organism (e.g., hepatitis B vaccine), or an inactivated toxin (e.g., tetanus). See also: vaccination, allergization. (Back to Glossary)

impotence

Pronunciation (im′pŏ-tens, -ten-sē)
Weakness; lack of power.
Specifically, inability of the male to achieve or maintain penile erection and thus engage in copulation; a manifestation of neurologic, vascular, or psychological dysfunction. (Back to Glossary)

influenza

Pronunciation (in′flū-en′ză)
An acute infectious respiratory disease, caused by Influenza viruses, which are in the family Orthomyxoviridae, in which the inhaled virus attacks the respiratory epithelial cells of those susceptible and produces a catarrhal inflammation; characterized by sudden onset, chills, fever of short duration (3–4 days), severe prostration, headache, muscle aches, and a cough that usually is dry and may be followed by secondary bacterial infections that can last up to 10 days. The disease commonly occurs in epidemics, sometimes in pandemics, which develop quickly and spread rapidly; the mortality rate is usually low, but may rise in patients with secondary bacterial pneumonia, particularly in old people and those with underlying debilitating diseases; strain-specific immunity develops, but mutations in the virus are frequent, and such immunity usually does not affect antigenically different. (Back to Glossary)

insulin

Pronunciation (in′sŭ-lin)
A polypeptide hormone, secreted by β cells in the islets of Langerhans, which promotes glucose use, protein synthesis, and the formation and storage of neutral lipids; available in various preparations including genetically engineered human insulin, which is currently favored. Insulin is used parenterally in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. (Back to Glossary)

insulin resistance

Diminished effectiveness of insulin in lowering plasma glucose levels, arbitrarily defined as a daily requirement of at least 200 units of insulin to prevent hyperglycemia or ketosis; usually due to binding of insulin or insulin receptor sites by antibodies; associated with obesity, ketoacidosis, and infection. See also: metabolic syndrome. (Back to Glossary)

K

kidney

Pronunciation (kid′nē)
One of the paired organs that excrete urine, remove nitrogenous wastes of metabolism, reclaim important electrolytes and water, contribute to blood pressure control(renin-angiotensin system) and erythropoiesis (via erythropoietin production). The kidneys are bean-shaped organs about 11-cm long, 5-cm wide, and 3-cm thick, lying on either side of the vertebral column, posterior to the peritoneum, opposite the 12th thoracic and 1st–3rd lumbar vertebrae. In animals, the kidney has variable size and location. (Back to Glossary)

L

LDL

Abbreviation for low density lipoprotein. see under lipoprotein. (Back to Glossary)

M

metabolic syndrome

a group of metabolic risk factors linked to insulin resistance and associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease. It is defined as the presence of any three of the following: 1) increased waist circumference (>102 cm for men, >88 cm for women), 2) elevated triglycerides >150 mg/dL, 3) low HDL cholesterol (less than 40 mg/dL for men, less than 50 mg/dL for women), 4) hypertension (systolic BP >130 and/or diastolic >85) or antihypertensive medication use, 5) impaired fasting glucose (>110 mg/dL).

Syn: dysmetabolic syndrome, insulin resistance syndrome, metabolic syndrome X, syndrome X, visceral obesity syndrome (Back to Glossary)

myocardial infarction

infarction of a segment of heart muscle, usually due to occlusion of a coronary artery.

Syn: cardiac infarction, heart attack (Back to Glossary)

N

nephropathy

Pronunciation (ne-frop′ă-thē)
Any disease of the kidney.

Syn: nephropathia, nephrosis (1) (Back to Glossary)

neuropathy

Pronunciation (nū-rop′ă-thē)
A classic term for any disorder affecting any segment of the nervous system. (Back to Glossary)

In contemporary usage, a disease involving the cranial nerves or the peripheral or autonomic nervous system.

Syn: neuritis (2) , neuropathia (Back to Glossary)

P

pancreas

Pronunciation (pan′krē-as, pan-krē-ā′tă)
An elongated lobulated retroperitoneal gland, devoid of a distinct capsule, extending from the concavity of the duodenum to the spleen; it consists of a flattened head within the duodenal concavity, a neck connecting the head and body, an elongated three-sided body extending transversely across the abdomen, and a tail in contact with the spleen. The gland secretes from its exocrine part pancreatic juice that is discharged into the intestine, and from its endocrine part the internal secretions insulin and glucagon. (Back to Glossary)

periodontitis

Pronunciation (per′ē-ō-don-tī′tis)
Inflammation of the periodontium.

A chronic inflammatory disease of the periodontium occurring in response to bacterial plaque on the adjacent teeth; characterized by gingivitis, destruction of the alveolar bone and periodontal ligament, apical migration of the epithelial attachment resulting in the formation of periodontal pockets, and ultimately loosening and exfoliation of the teeth. (Back to Glossary)

plaque

Pronunciation (plak)
A patch or small differentiated area on a body surface (e.g., skin, mucosa, or arterial endothelium) or on the cut surface of an organ such as the brain; in skin, a circumscribed, elevated, superficial, and solid area exceeding 1 cm in diameter. (Back to Glossary)

An area of clearing in a flat confluent growth of bacteria or tissue cells, such as that caused by the lytic action of bacteriophage in an agar plate culture of bacteria, by the cytopathic effect of certain animal viruses in a sheet of cultured tissue cells, or by antibody (hemolysin) produced by lymphocytes cultured in the presence of erythrocytes and to which complement has been added.

A sharply defined zone of demyelination characteristic of multiple sclerosis. See: dental plaque (Back to Glossary)

prediabetes

Pronunciation (pre′dī-ă-bē′tēz)
A state of potential diabetes mellitus, with normal glucose tolerance but with an increased risk of developing Type 2 diabetes, (e.g., family history). (Back to Glossary)

R

retinopathy

Pronunciation (ret′i-nop′ă-thē)
Noninflammatory degenerative disease of the retina. (Back to Glossary)

retrograde ejaculation

Delivery of semen ejaculate into the bladder; seen in neurologic disease, diabetes, and occasionally after prostate surgery. (Back to Glossary)

risk factor

A characteristic statistically associated with, although not necessarily causally related to, an increased risk of morbidity or mortality, e.g., smoking as a risk factor for heart disease. (Back to Glossary)

S stroke Pronunciation (strōk) Any acute clinical event, related to impairment of cerebral circulation, that lasts longer than 24 hours. Syn: apoplexy, brain attack A harmful discharge of lightning, particularly one that affects a human being. A pulsation. To pass the hand or any instrument gently over a surface. See also: stroking. A gliding movement over a surface. (Back to Glossary)

T

transient ischemic attack (TIA)

A sudden focal loss of neurologic function with complete recovery usually within 24 hours; caused by a brief period of inadequate perfusion in a portion of the territory of the carotid or vertebral basilar arteries. (Back to Glossary)

Type 1 diabetes

a condition characterized by high blood glucose levels caused by a total lack of insulin. Occurs when the body's immune system attacks the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas and destroys them. The pancreas then produces little or no insulin. Type 1 diabetes develops most often in young people but can appear in adults. (Back to Glossary)

Syn: juvenile-onset diabetes

Type 2 diabetes

A condition characterized by high blood glucose levels caused by either a lack of insulin or the body's inability to use insulin efficiently. Type 2 diabetes develops most often in middle-aged and older adults but can appear in young people. (Back to Glossary)

U

ulcer

Pronunciation (ŭl′sĕr)
A lesion through the skin or a mucous membrane resulting from loss of tissue, usually with inflammation. See: erosion (Back to Glossary)

V vitrectomy Pronunciation (vi-trek′tŏ-mē) Removal of the vitreous by means of an instrument that simultaneously removes vitreous by suction and cutting, and replaces it with saline or some other fluid. (Back to Glossary)